23rd February 2025

Topic : Majorana 1: Microsoft’s New Quantum Chip
Relevance : GS Paper 3 Science and Technology
Source : The Hindu
Context :

Quantum computing represents one of the most revolutionary technological advancements of the 21st century. It promises computational power far beyond classical computers, potentially transforming fields like cryptography, material science, and artificial intelligence. Recently, Microsoft unveiled its new quantum chip, Majorana 1, claiming it uses a unique type of qubit based on Majorana particles. While this development has stirred excitement, it also raises fundamental scientific and technological questions.
Understanding Quantum Computing and Qubits :
Quantum computers differ from classical computers in their fundamental unit of computation. Instead of classical bits (0s and 1s), they use qubits, which leverage quantum phenomena like superposition (existing in multiple states simultaneously) and entanglement (interdependent states of multiple qubits). These properties enable quantum computers to solve complex mathematical problems exponentially faster than classical machines.
However, a major challenge in quantum computing is error correction. Qubits are highly unstable and prone to decoherence due to environmental disturbances. Different companies, including Google, IBM, and now Microsoft, are exploring various qubit architectures to address this challenge.
Majorana 1 and the Promise of Topological Qubits :

Microsoft’s Majorana 1 claims to use topological qubits, which are theoretically more stable than conventional superconducting qubits used by Google and IBM. The name Majorana originates from Majorana fermions, hypothetical particles that are their own antiparticles. These fermions are predicted to exist in topological superconductors, materials engineered to maintain quantum states with minimal external interference.
The advantage of topological qubits lies in their ability to be more resistant to errors, making them potentially superior for building scalable quantum computers. Microsoft has reportedly achieved this by using indium arsenide with an aluminium superconductor to create the right conditions for Majorana fermions to emerge.
Skepticism and Scientific Scrutiny :
Despite the claims, the scientific community remains skeptical about Microsoft’s announcement. Past claims of discovering Majorana particles, including some backed by Microsoft, were later debunked upon closer examination. Moreover, while Microsoft’s press release suggested peer-reviewed confirmation of Majorana fermions, the actual study published in Nature does not conclusively validate their existence.
Additionally, Microsoft’s approach highlights a broader issue in corporate-driven research: the tension between scientific transparency and proprietary interests. Unlike academic research, where findings undergo extensive peer scrutiny, private companies often release selective data to protect intellectual property. This can lead to exaggerated claims, as seen in past controversies surrounding quantum supremacy.

1. National Security and Cryptography: Quantum computers can break classical encryption, necessitating the development of post-quantum cryptography to safeguard national security.
2. Pharmaceuticals and Material Science: Quantum simulations can accelerate drug discovery and material design, benefiting industries and research institutions.
3. Climate Modeling and Optimization: Enhanced computational power can improve climate predictions and optimize logistics, agriculture, and energy management.
4. Financial and AI Applications: Faster computations could revolutionize risk analysis, fraud detection, and machine learning models.
   India’s progress in quantum computing includes collaborations between premier institutes like IISc, IITs, and ISRO, along with investments in quantum communication and cryptographic protocols.
   Despite its promise, quantum computing faces several challenges:
   • Hardware Stability: Qubits remain fragile, and scalable, error-free quantum computing is still years away.
   • High Costs and Infrastructure: Quantum computers require extreme cooling conditions (near absolute zero), making them expensive to develop and maintain.

• Workforce Development: India needs more trained professionals in quantum mechanics, computer science, and material science to lead advancements in the field.
Prelims Practice Question:
Consider the following statements regarding quantum computing:

1. Quantum computers use qubits, which operate based only on binary states (0 and 1).
2. Majorana particles are found naturally in topological superconductors.
3. India has launched the National Quantum Mission (NQM) to promote indigenous quantum technologies.
   Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
   (a) 1 and 2 only
   (b) 3 only
   (c) 2 and 3 only
   (d) 1, 2, and 3
   Answer:
   Correct Option: (b) 3 only
   Explanation:
   • Statement 1 is incorrect: Unlike classical bits that operate on binary states (0 and 1), qubits can exist in superposition, meaning they can be in both states simultaneously.
   • Statement 2 is incorrect: Majorana particles are not found naturally but are theoretically predicted to exist in engineered topological superconductors.
   • Statement 3 is correct: India has launched the National Quantum Mission (NQM) to advance indigenous quantum computing, cryptography, and quantum communication technologies.
   Mains Model Question:
   Q. Discuss the objectives, significance, and challenges of the National Quantum Mission (NQM) in India. How can India leverage quantum technologies for national security and economic growth? (250 words)
   The National Quantum Mission (NQM), launched by the Government of India, aims to develop indigenous quantum technologies in computing, cryptography, communication, and sensing. This initiative places India among the few nations investing in quantum research, alongside the U.S., China, and Europe.
   Objectives of NQM
4. Develop Quantum Computers: Build quantum processors with increasing qubit capacity to perform complex calculations.
5. Enhance Quantum Communication: Establish secure quantum networks for defense and financial transactions.
6. Advance Quantum Cryptography: Strengthen national cybersecurity by developing post-quantum encryption methods.
7. Promote Research and Development: Encourage collaboration between academia, industries, and government bodies.
   Significance of Quantum Technologies
   • National Security: Quantum cryptography can prevent cyberattacks and data breaches.
   • Scientific Advancements: Quantum simulations can revolutionize material science and drug discovery.
   • Economic Growth: Quantum computing can optimize logistics, financial modeling, and artificial intelligence.
   • Global Competitiveness: Strengthens India’s position in emerging technologies, reducing dependence on foreign innovations.
   Challenges in Implementation
   • Technological Barriers: Quantum computers require ultra-low temperatures and stable environments.
   • High Costs: Developing quantum infrastructure demands substantial investment.
   • Skill Deficit: India needs more trained scientists and engineers in quantum mechanics.
   Way Forward
   • Increasing government and private-sector funding.
   • Strengthening global collaborations for research and knowledge-sharing.
   • Establishing specialized quantum research institutions and training programs.

Topic : Regulating Digital Content: The Need for a New Legal Framework
Relevance : GS Paper 2 Polity and Governance
Source : Indian Express
Context :

The Government of India, through the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (I&B), is examining existing statutory provisions and exploring the possibility of a new legal framework to regulate digital content. This move comes amid rising concerns over obscenity, violent content, and the perceived misuse of freedom of expression on digital platforms. The debate gained momentum following the Supreme Court’s observations in the Ranveer Allahbadia case and queries raised by a Parliamentary panel.

Current Legal Provisions and Challenges
Digital platforms, including Over-the-Top (OTT) services and social media platforms like YouTube, currently operate under a self-regulatory mechanism as per the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021. However, these regulations are seen as inadequate in dealing with evolving digital content, prompting the need for stronger enforcement and legal backing.
Existing Legal Mechanisms:
• Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000: Governs online content but lacks specific provisions addressing obscenity and violence on digital platforms.
• Cinematograph Act, 1952: Regulates films but does not extend to OTT content.
• Indian Penal Code (IPC) Provisions: Sections related to obscenity and hate speech apply but are not comprehensive for digital content.
Parliamentary Panel’s Recommendations
The Standing Committee on Communications and Information Technology, led by Nishikant Dubey, has urged the government to propose legal amendments or introduce a new regulatory framework. Members across party lines have supported the need for stricter controls over digital content.
Key concerns raised by the panel include:

1. Rise in Obscene and Violent Content: The need for stricter content monitoring.
2. Legal Vacuums in Regulating Digital Media: Unlike print and broadcast media, digital platforms remain largely unregulated.
3. Public Sentiment and Social Responsibility: Demands from MPs, statutory bodies (e.g., National Commission for Women), and the judiciary for a legal overhaul.
   Supreme Court’s Observations
   The Supreme Court, while hearing Ranveer Allahbadia’s plea for relief from FIRs, pointed out a “vacuum” in law regarding digital content regulation. The court observed that unrestricted content proliferation could have serious societal consequences and hinted at the judiciary’s willingness to intervene if the government failed to act.
   • Expressed concerns over “all kinds of things” appearing online without oversight.
   • Stressed the urgency for the Government of India to introduce new regulations.
   • Indicated that if the government does not act, the judiciary may step in to address the regulatory gap.
   The I&B Ministry has acknowledged these concerns and has taken the following steps:
4. Reviewing Existing Laws: Examining whether current statutory provisions are sufficient or if a new law is needed.
5. Issuing Advisory to OTT Platforms: Urging adherence to the Code of Ethics under the IT Rules, 2021.
6. Enhancing Self-Regulation: Directing self-regulatory bodies of OTT platforms to take proactive measures in enforcing ethical content guidelines.

Debate Over Content Regulation and Freedom of Expression
While stricter regulations aim to curb harmful content, there are concerns that they could be misused for censorship or political motives. Critics argue that vague or excessive restrictions might infringe upon free speech and creative expression.

1. Balanced Legislation: Any new legal framework should maintain a balance between content moderation and freedom of expression.
2. Clear Definitions: Legal provisions must clearly define terms like “harmful content” to prevent misuse.
3. Independent Regulatory Body: A neutral authority could oversee digital content to avoid government overreach.
4. Public Consultation: Engaging with stakeholders, including content creators, legal experts, and civil society, before finalizing new regulations.
   Prelims Practice Question:
   Consider the following statements regarding digital content regulation in India:
5. The Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000 provides a comprehensive framework for regulating content on digital platforms, including Over-the-Top (OTT) services.
6. The Supreme Court of India recently observed that there is a legal vacuum in regulating digital content on platforms like YouTube.
7. The IT Rules, 2021 include provisions for self-regulation of digital content but do not impose any legal obligations on OTT platforms.
   Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
   (a) 1 and 2 only
   (b) 2 only
   (c) 1 and 3 only
   (d) 2 and 3 only
   Answer:
   Correct Option: (b) 2 only
   Explanation:
   • Statement 1 is incorrect: The IT Act, 2000 governs online content but does not comprehensively regulate digital media, including OTT platforms.
   • Statement 2 is correct: The Supreme Court recently observed a legal vacuum in regulating digital content on platforms such as YouTube and indicated the need for new regulations.
   • Statement 3 is incorrect: The IT Rules, 2021 establish a self-regulatory mechanism, but they also impose legal obligations on OTT platforms to adhere to a Code of Ethics.2021
   Mains Model Question
   Q. “The rise of digital platforms has necessitated a robust regulatory framework to balance freedom of expression with the need to curb harmful content.” Discuss the challenges in regulating digital content in India and suggest a way forward.
   The rapid growth of digital platforms, OTT services, and social media has revolutionized content consumption, but it has also raised concerns over obscenity, misinformation, and violent content. The Supreme Court recently highlighted the legal vacuum in regulating digital content, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive framework to address these challenges while ensuring freedom of expression.
   One of the primary issues in regulating digital content is the absence of a dedicated law. The Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000, primarily deals with cybercrimes and intermediary liability but lacks specific provisions for content regulation. Similarly, the Cinematograph Act, 1952, governs films but does not apply to OTT platforms. While the IT Rules, 2021, introduced a self-regulatory mechanism, their enforcement has been inconsistent. Another challenge is balancing content regulation with Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution, which guarantees freedom of speech. Excessive control could lead to censorship, impacting artistic and journalistic expression. Additionally, many digital platforms operate from foreign jurisdictions, complicating enforcement. The rapid evolution of digital content further makes it difficult for laws to keep pace with emerging challenges.

To address these issues, India needs a well-defined legal framework that clearly distinguishes between harmful and permissible content while upholding free speech. Establishing an independent regulatory body to oversee compliance can ensure impartial implementation. Public consultations involving content creators, legal experts, and civil society can help develop a balanced approach. Strengthening self-regulation while ensuring legal accountability will allow India to maintain democratic values while curbing digital content-related risks effectively.

Topic : India’s Indigenous Submarine Program
Relevance : GS Paper 3 Science and Technology
Source : The Hindu
Context :

India’s submarine fleet is undergoing significant modernization with a focus on self-reliance and technological advancements. The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) is preparing to seek approval for the indigenous development of conventional submarines under Project-76, while contract negotiations for Project-75I, aimed at acquiring six new submarines, are set to begin. These efforts are critical for enhancing India’s naval capabilities, ensuring maritime security, and reducing dependence on foreign suppliers.
Project-76: India’s Indigenous Conventional Submarine Program
Project-76 is an ambitious initiative to develop and manufacture conventional submarines with 90-95% indigenous content. The submarines will be capable of launching Land Attack Cruise Missiles (LACMs) from torpedo tubes and will incorporate advanced technology in sonars, electronic warfare systems, combat management, and periscopes. The project is expected to take two to three years for the design phase and an additional five years for construction, resulting in the first submarine being operational within eight years of project approval.
This indigenous effort builds on the experience gained from the Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV) project, under which nuclear ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) like the Arihant class were developed. The expertise gained in submarine construction through the ATV and ongoing nuclear-powered attack submarine (SSN) project will contribute significantly to Project-76.
Project-75I: Procurement of Six Conventional Submarines

Project-75I, a separate initiative, aims to acquire six diesel-electric submarines with advanced capabilities, including Air-Independent Propulsion (AIP), which allows submarines to remain submerged for longer durations without surfacing. The contract, valued at ₹70,000 crore, has entered the negotiation phase, with Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Ltd. (MDL) partnering with Germany’s ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems (TKMS). Given the complex contract terms, the final agreement is expected to take at least two years, and the first submarine will be delivered seven years after signing.
Existing Submarine Fleet of India
India currently operates 17 conventional submarines and a few nuclear-powered submarines. However, many conventional submarines are ageing, necessitating urgent replacements. The major submarines in India’s fleet include:
 Scorpene-Class (Kalvari-Class) Submarines (Project-75): Built in collaboration with France’s Naval Group, these are modern diesel-electric submarines equipped with state-of-the-art stealth and weaponry. Six have been commissioned, with three more planned.
 Kilo-Class (Sindhughosh-Class) Submarines: Acquired from Russia, these diesel-electric submarines have been the backbone of the Indian Navy but are nearing the end of their service life.
 Type 209 (Shishumar-Class) Submarines: Built with German assistance, these submarines have been in service since the 1980s and are undergoing upgrades.
 INS Arihant-Class (SSBNs): India’s first nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines, developed under the ATV project, provide second-strike capability as part of the country’s nuclear deterrence strategy.
 INS Chakra (Akula-Class SSN): A nuclear-powered attack submarine leased from Russia for training and operational experience. India plans to build indigenous SSNs as a long-term solution.
Strategic Relevance of Indigenous Submarine Programs
With increasing maritime challenges in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR), the expansion of China’s naval presence, and the growing need for power projection, a strong indigenous submarine fleet is crucial for India. Key advantages of these programs include:

1. Reduced Dependence on Foreign Suppliers: Developing indigenous submarines will enhance self-reliance and reduce reliance on imported technologies.
2. Enhanced Maritime Security: A modern submarine fleet will strengthen deterrence against adversaries and protect India’s interests in the IOR.
3. Technological Advancements: Investing in indigenous design and development fosters R&D growth, job creation, and industrial expansion.
4. Sustaining a Blue-Water Navy: A robust submarine fleet is essential for India’s vision of power projection beyond its coastline, ensuring dominance in regional and global waters.
   With the parallel progression of Project-75I, Project-76, and nuclear submarine development, India is poised to significantly enhance its underwater warfare capabilities, securing its maritime interests for the future.
   Prelims Practice Question
   Q. Consider the following statements regarding India’s submarine programs:
5. Project-75I aims to develop indigenous conventional submarines with Air-Independent Propulsion (AIP) technology.
6. Project-76 is focused on the procurement of six diesel-electric submarines from foreign manufacturers.
7. The Arihant-class submarines are nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines developed under the Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV) project.
8. The Scorpene-class submarines in India are built with Russian collaboration.
   Which of the statements given above are correct?
   (a) 1 and 3 only
   (b) 2 and 4 only
   (c) 1, 2, and 3 only
   (d) 1, 3, and 4 only
   Answer:
   Correct option: (a) 1 and 3 only
   Explanation:
9. Correct – Project-75I is aimed at acquiring six conventional diesel-electric submarines with Air-Independent Propulsion (AIP) technology to enhance underwater endurance.
10. Incorrect – Project-76 is focused on the indigenous design and development of conventional submarines, whereas Project-75I involves procurement from foreign manufacturers.
11. Correct – The Arihant-class submarines are nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) developed under India’s Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV) project, aimed at strengthening nuclear deterrence.
12. Incorrect – The Scorpene-class (Kalvari-class) submarines in India are built with French collaboration (Naval Group, France), not Russia.
    Thus, the correct answer is (a) 1 and 3 only.
    Mains Model Question
    Q. Discuss the significance of India’s indigenous submarine programs, including Project-76 and the Arihant-class submarines, in strengthening national security. What challenges does India face in achieving self-reliance in submarine technology?
    India’s indigenous submarine programs, such as Project-76 for conventional submarines and the Arihant-class SSBNs, play a crucial role in enhancing maritime security and strategic deterrence.
    Project-76 aims to develop indigenous diesel-electric submarines with high indigenous content, incorporating advanced sonar, combat management systems, and land-attack cruise missiles (LACMs). This project builds on the expertise gained from the Scorpene-class (Project-75) and Project-75I, which involve foreign collaboration. The Arihant-class SSBNs, developed under the Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV) project, are India’s first nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines, ensuring second-strike capability under the nuclear triad.

The significance of these programs includes:

1. Strategic Deterrence – The Arihant-class SSBNs enhance nuclear deterrence by providing an assured retaliation capability.
2. Maritime Dominance – Indigenous submarines improve India’s underwater combat potential, crucial in the Indo-Pacific region.
3. Self-Reliance in Defense – Project-76 aligns with Aatmanirbhar Bharat, reducing dependence on foreign suppliers.
4. Technological Advancement – Enhancing capabilities in stealth, endurance, and weaponry strengthens naval warfare capacity.
   Challenges:
5. Technological Constraints – Submarine technology involves complex systems like Air-Independent Propulsion (AIP) and nuclear reactors, requiring sustained R&D.
6. Delays in Execution – Bureaucratic hurdles and design complexities slow down indigenous submarine production.
7. Cost and Infrastructure – Developing advanced shipbuilding infrastructure is essential for large-scale indigenous submarine programs.
8. Foreign Dependence – Critical components like high-end semiconductors and propulsion systems are still imported.
   Addressing these challenges through enhanced R&D, private-sector involvement, and global partnerships will be key to India achieving true self-reliance in submarine technology.

Topic : Ratnagiri Buddhist heritage site
Relevance : GS Paper 1 History
Source : The Hindu
Context :

The recent discovery of a 1.4-metre-tall Buddha head at the Ratnagiri Buddhist heritage site in Odisha has brought renewed attention to the region’s rich Buddhist legacy. This site, part of the Diamond Triangle—comprising Ratnagiri, Udayagiri, and Lalitgiri—has been a significant center of Buddhist learning and worship since the 5th century AD.
Significance of the Discovery
The excavation at Ratnagiri, which resumed after nearly six decades, has unearthed three sculpted Buddha heads, a monolithic elephant sculpture, and hundreds of votive stupas. The massive Buddha head, measuring 1.4 meters, is the largest ever discovered in Odisha, and further analysis may determine if it is the largest in India. The sculpting of intricate facial features and wrinkles on the neck reflects the advanced craftsmanship of ancient artisans.

The site has also yielded stone tablets inscribed in the Kutila script (Siddhamatrika), along with statues of Amoghasiddhi, Ratnasambhava, Akshobhya, and Amitabha Buddhas, all key figures in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. These discoveries indicate that Ratnagiri was an essential Vajrayana Buddhist center, attracting monks and scholars.
The Diamond Triangle :

The Diamond Triangle of Odisha—Ratnagiri, Udayagiri, and Lalitgiri—is a cluster of Buddhist sites that flourished between the 5th and 13th centuries AD. Each of these sites played a crucial role in spreading Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism.

1. Lalitgiri – One of the oldest Buddhist sites in India, dating back to the 1st century AD. It houses stupas, monasteries, and relic caskets believed to contain Buddha’s remains.
2. Udayagiri – The largest Buddhist site in Odisha, featuring a monastery complex, large stupas, and a chaitya (prayer hall). It is known for its sculptures of Bodhisattvas and tantric deities.
3. Ratnagiri – A major center of Vajrayana Buddhism, where monasteries, votive stupas, and Buddha statues have been discovered. Inscriptions confirm its role in the Somavamsi and Pala dynasty periods.
   These sites were crucial in Buddhism’s spread across India and Southeast Asia. Their location near rivers provided natural protection and a serene environment for Buddhist monks to study and practice meditation.
   Future Prospects
   The ongoing excavation at Ratnagiri is expected to continue until March 2025, revealing more about the architectural, artistic, and spiritual contributions of ancient Buddhist communities. The presence of votive stupas in a structured sequence suggests an extensive shrine complex, although a chaitya griha (prayer hall) has not been discovered yet.
   With international scholars and students joining the excavation, there is growing academic interest in understanding the evolution of Buddhist sculpture and architecture in Odisha. The findings at Ratnagiri reinforce its importance as a Buddhist pilgrimage site, alongside other major centers like Sarnath, Bodh Gaya, and Sanchi.

Prelims Practice Question
Consider the following statements regarding the Diamond Triangle of Odisha:

1. The Diamond Triangle consists of Ratnagiri, Udayagiri, and Lalitgiri.
2. These sites were major centers of Vajrayana Buddhism.
3. The recent excavation at Ratnagiri has revealed the largest Buddha head ever found in India.
4. The Lalitgiri site is believed to contain relics of Gautama Buddha.
   Which of the statements given above are correct?
   (a) 1 and 2 only
   (b) 1, 2, and 4 only
   (c) 1, 2, 3, and 4
   (d) 2, 3, and 4 only
   Answer:
   (c) 1, 2, 3, and 4
   Explanation:
   • Statement 1 is correct: The Diamond Triangle consists of Ratnagiri, Udayagiri, and Lalitgiri, which are significant Buddhist heritage sites in Odisha.
   • Statement 2 is correct: These sites, especially Ratnagiri, were important centers of Vajrayana Buddhism, a tantric form of Mahayana Buddhism.
   • Statement 3 is correct: The recent excavation at Ratnagiri unearthed a 1.4-meter-tall Buddha head, which is the largest ever found in Odisha, and further study may confirm if it is the largest in India.
   • Statement 4 is correct: The Lalitgiri site has relic caskets believed to contain the remains of Gautama Buddha, making it a crucial Buddhist pilgrimage center.
   Mains Model Question
   Q. Discuss the significance of the recent archaeological excavations at Ratnagiri in Odisha and their relevance to the Diamond Triangle of Buddhism. How do such discoveries contribute to India’s cultural heritage and tourism?
   The recent archaeological excavations at Ratnagiri in Odisha have brought to light remarkable Buddhist relics, reinforcing its historical significance within the Diamond Triangle, which also includes Udayagiri and Lalitgiri. The discovery of a 1.4-meter-tall Buddha head, potentially the largest in India, along with hundreds of votive stupas, sculpted figures, and inscriptions in the Siddhamatrika script, provides crucial insights into the region’s Buddhist past.
   Ratnagiri was a flourishing center of Vajrayana Buddhism from the 5th to the 13th century AD. Its strategic location, encircled by rivers and hills, made it an ideal setting for monastic and scholarly activities. The presence of monolithic sculptures, inscriptions, and shrines indicates that Ratnagiri was a key hub for Buddhist teachings and cultural exchange. These discoveries establish deeper connections between Odisha and other Buddhist regions, highlighting India’s role in the spread of Buddhism to Southeast Asia.
   The Diamond Triangle is already a major Buddhist heritage zone, and such findings further bolster India’s cultural identity and soft power diplomacy. They also provide an impetus for heritage tourism, attracting scholars, pilgrims, and travelers, much like Bihar’s Nalanda and Sarnath. Proper conservation and promotion of these sites can enhance Odisha’s cultural economy.
   Additionally, these excavations contribute to historical research, iconography studies, and religious tourism development. The discovery of refined Buddhist sculptures at Ratnagiri underscores the artistic and architectural advancements of ancient India. Further excavations and preservation efforts can deepen our understanding of India’s Buddhist heritage while strengthening its global cultural presence.

Topic : India-Bhutan Relations: A Strong and Enduring Partnership
Relevance : GS Paper 2 International Relations
Source : Indian Express
Context :

Historical and Cultural Ties
India and Bhutan have shared close cultural and religious links for centuries. Bhutan’s Buddhist heritage has strong connections with India, particularly with Bodh Gaya and Nalanda, which were prominent centers of Buddhist learning. Guru Padmasambhava, an 8th-century Indian saint, is credited with introducing Buddhism to Bhutan, and his influence remains profound in Bhutanese culture. Additionally, linguistic ties exist, as Dzongkha, Bhutan’s official language, shares similarities with Tibetan script, which has roots in Sanskrit and Pali.
The modern diplomatic relationship between the two countries formally began with the Indo-Bhutan Treaty of 1949, wherein Bhutan agreed to consult India on foreign affairs while maintaining its sovereignty. This treaty was revised in 2007, removing the clause that required Bhutan to seek India’s guidance, thereby giving Bhutan greater autonomy while reinforcing India’s role as its closest partner.
Economic and Developmental Cooperation
India has been Bhutan’s largest trading and development partner. Several infrastructure and economic projects have been funded by India, including:
• Hydropower Projects: India has supported Bhutan’s hydropower sector, which contributes to Bhutan’s economy through electricity exports. The Tala, Chukha, and Mangdechhu projects are major examples.

• Connectivity and Infrastructure: India has assisted in road construction, telecom connectivity, and digital projects to improve Bhutan’s accessibility. Recently, discussions on expanding railway connectivity have gained momentum.
• Financial Support: India provides substantial grants and lines of credit for Bhutan’s Five-Year Plans, aiding its economic growth.
Strategic and Security Cooperation
Bhutan plays a crucial role in India’s security architecture, particularly in the Himalayan region. The two nations coordinate closely on border management, and India supports Bhutan in maintaining its territorial integrity. The 2017 Doklam standoff highlighted the strategic nature of this relationship, where India backed Bhutan against Chinese encroachment near the tri-junction of India, Bhutan, and China.

Recent Developments in India-Bhutan Relations
The visit of Bhutanese Prime Minister Tshering Tobgay to India in February 2024 reaffirmed the strong bilateral ties. During his visit:
• He participated in the SOUL Leadership Conclave in New Delhi, where he praised Prime Minister Narendra Modi as a guiding force.
• High-level meetings were held with Indian ministers and officials, emphasizing cooperation in infrastructure, technology, and governance reforms.
• Talks were also focused on enhancing railway and trade linkages, further strengthening economic integration.
Prelims Practice Question
Q. Consider the following statements regarding India-Bhutan relations:

1. The Indo-Bhutan Treaty of 1949 was revised in 2007 to grant Bhutan greater autonomy in foreign affairs.
2. Bhutan’s hydropower sector is a major source of revenue, with India being its primary partner in hydropower projects.
3. The 2017 Doklam standoff was a border dispute between India and Bhutan.
4. Bhutan is a member of the United Nations but does not have diplomatic relations with any of the P5 countries (Permanent members of the UN Security Council).
   Which of the above statements are correct?
   (A) 1 and 2 only
   (B) 1, 2, and 3 only
   (C) 2 and 4 only
   (D) 1, 2, and 4 only
   Answer: (D) 1, 2, and 4 only
   Explanation:
   • Statement 1 is correct: The Indo-Bhutan Treaty of 1949 was revised in 2007, giving Bhutan full control over its foreign policy while maintaining strong ties with India.
   • Statement 2 is correct: Bhutan’s economy heavily depends on hydropower exports to India, with India funding and assisting in major projects like Tala, Chukha, and Mangdechhu.
   • Statement 3 is incorrect: The 2017 Doklam standoff was a dispute between India and China over a strategic plateau claimed by Bhutan. India intervened to support Bhutan’s sovereignty.
   • Statement 4 is correct: Bhutan is a UN member but follows a policy of limited diplomatic relations and does not have formal ties with any of the P5 (US, UK, Russia, China, France).
   Mains Model Question
   Q. Discuss the historical, cultural, and strategic dimensions of India-Bhutan relations. How have recent developments strengthened the bilateral partnership?
   India and Bhutan share a unique relationship based on geographical proximity, cultural affinity, and strategic cooperation. Their friendship is built on trust, mutual respect, and non-interference in each other’s internal affairs.
   India and Bhutan have maintained close ties for centuries, with Buddhism being a key link. Guru Padmasambhava, an Indian Buddhist saint, is credited with spreading Buddhism in Bhutan in the 8th century. The Indo-Bhutan Treaty of 1949 formalized relations, making India responsible for Bhutan’s security and external affairs. This treaty was revised in 2007, granting Bhutan full autonomy in foreign policy while continuing the strong partnership.
   India remains Bhutan’s largest trade and development partner. Hydropower exports to India constitute 40% of Bhutan’s GDP, with major projects like Tala, Chukha, and Mangdechhu. India has also supported Bhutan’s Five-Year Plans since 1961, contributing to infrastructure, education, and healthcare.

Strategically, Bhutan acts as a buffer between India and China, making its security crucial for India. The 2017 Doklam standoff reaffirmed India’s commitment to Bhutan’s sovereignty. Defense cooperation includes regular joint military exercises and Bhutan’s participation in India’s National Defence Academy.
The recent visit of Bhutan’s PM Tshering Tobgay (February 2024) highlighted growing cooperation in railways, digital infrastructure, and space technology. India also committed to supporting Bhutan’s 12th Five-Year Plan. Bhutan’s decision to open a diplomatic mission in India in 2023 further strengthened bilateral ties.
Overall, India-Bhutan relations continue to deepen, driven by historical bonds, economic collaboration, and shared strategic interests.