17th February 2025

Topic: Underwater Domain Awareness
Relevance: GS Paper 2 International Relations
Source: Indian Express
Context:

Growing cooperation between India and the U.S. in the field of Underwater Domain Awareness (UDA), a critical aspect of maritime security. The collaboration, part of broader defense and technological engagements, includes initiatives to co-develop and co-produce advanced underwater surveillance and defense technologies in India.
Key Aspects of the India-U.S. UDA Cooperation

1. Formation of the Autonomous Systems Industry Alliance (ASIA)
   • Announced during Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit to Washington, ASIA aims to foster industry partnerships and boost production of underwater surveillance technologies in India.
   • This aligns with the Indo-Pacific security framework, especially in light of China’s growing naval presence in the Indian Ocean region.
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2. Identified Technologies for Co-Production
   The U.S. has proposed co-development opportunities with India, offering cutting-edge technologies such as:
   • Sea Picket autonomous surveillance system: Uses sonar acoustic arrays by ThayerMahan for detecting underwater threats.
   • Wave Glider unmanned surface vehicles (USVs): Used for long-duration maritime monitoring and data collection.
   • Low-frequency active-towed sonar: A high-end sonar system for submarine tracking.
   • Multistatic active (MSA) sonobuoys: Advanced underwater sensors used to detect submarines.
   • Large-diameter autonomous undersea vehicles: Produced by Anduril, useful for underwater reconnaissance.
   • Triton autonomous underwater and surface vehicle: Designed by Ocean Aero for dual-domain surveillance.
3. Key Industry Collaborations
   Several U.S. defense companies are in discussions with Indian partners for co-production:
   • Wave Glider unmanned surface vehicle: Boeing’s Liquid Robotics is negotiating with Sagar Defence Engineering to manufacture 60 platforms in India.
   • Low-frequency active-towed sonar: L3 Harris is in talks with Bharat Electronics Ltd. (BEL) for co-development.
   • MSA sonobuoys: A key India-U.S. partnership announced in January 2025, where Ultra Maritime will co-produce these sonobuoys in collaboration with Bharat Dynamics Ltd. (BDL).
4. Expansion of India-U.S. Military Cooperation
   The joint statement between PM Modi and U.S. President Trump emphasized deeper defense collaboration across air, land, sea, space, and cyberspace through:
   • Joint military training, exercises, and intelligence sharing.
   • Enhancing logistics and force mobility, including humanitarian and disaster relief operations.
5. Quad-Level Cooperation
   • As India prepares to host the Quad Summit, new initiatives include:
   o “Shared airlift capacity” for disaster response.
   o “Maritime patrols” to improve interoperability between India, U.S., Japan, and Australia.
6. Strengthening India’s Anti-Submarine Warfare Capabilities
   Apart from UDA technologies, India is bolstering its anti-submarine warfare (ASW) arsenal with advanced platforms from the U.S.:
   • 12 P-8I Poseidon maritime patrol aircraft (in service).
   • 24 MH-60R Seahawk helicopters (being inducted).
   • 15 MQ-9B Sea Guardian drones (out of a total order of 31).
   • 6 more P-8I aircraft were approved in recent discussions.
   Strategic Implications
   • These initiatives enhance India’s surveillance and deterrence capabilities in the Indian Ocean, countering China’s naval expansion.

• Strengthening defense partnerships with the U.S. boosts India’s defense manufacturing sector and aligns with the Atmanirbhar Bharat (self-reliant India) initiative.
• Improved interoperability within the Quad supports regional stability and counterbalances China’s presence in the Indo-Pacific.
This cooperation marks a historic shift as India becomes the first country with which the U.S. is collaborating on such sensitive underwater technologies.
Prelims Practice Question
Q. Consider the following statements regarding the India-U.S. cooperation in Underwater Domain Awareness (UDA):

1. The Autonomous Systems Industry Alliance (ASIA) was formed to strengthen collaboration between India and the U.S. in the field of underwater surveillance technologies.
2. The Wave Glider unmanned surface vehicle systems are being co-produced in India in collaboration with Bharat Electronics Ltd.
3. The Multistatic Active (MSA) sonobuoys, used for submarine tracking, will be co-produced in India with Bharat Dynamics Ltd.
   Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
   (a) 1 and 2 only
   (b) 2 and 3 only
   (c) 1 and 3 only
   (d) 1, 2, and 3
   Answer:
   Correct option: (c) 1 and 3 only
   Explanation:
4. Statement 1 is correct: The Autonomous Systems Industry Alliance (ASIA) was indeed launched to enhance industry collaboration between India and the U.S. in underwater surveillance technologies.
5. Statement 2 is incorrect: The Wave Glider unmanned surface vehicle systems are being discussed for co-production between Boeing’s Liquid Robotics and Sagar Defence Engineering, not Bharat Electronics Ltd. (BEL).
6. Statement 3 is correct: The Multistatic Active (MSA) sonobuoys, crucial for submarine detection, will be co-produced in India in partnership between Ultra Maritime and Bharat Dynamics Ltd. (BDL).
   Mains Model Question
   Q. Discuss the significance of the India-U.S. cooperation in Underwater Domain Awareness (UDA) and its implications for India’s maritime security and Indo-Pacific strategy. (250 words)
   The India-U.S. cooperation in Underwater Domain Awareness (UDA) marks a significant step in strengthening maritime security in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) and the broader Indo-Pacific. This collaboration aligns with India’s goal of enhancing maritime surveillance, anti-submarine warfare (ASW), and regional stability amid China’s increasing naval presence.
   Significance for India’s Maritime Security:
7. Advanced Technology Transfer: The U.S. has offered co-production and co-development of cutting-edge UDA technologies such as the Sea Picket autonomous surveillance system, Wave Glider unmanned surface vehicles, and Multistatic Active (MSA) sonobuoys.
8. Enhanced Submarine Tracking: The MSA sonobuoys and low-frequency active towed sonar will significantly improve India’s anti-submarine warfare capabilities.
9. Strengthening the Indian Navy: India has procured high-end platforms from the U.S., including P-8I maritime patrol aircraft, MH-60R helicopters, and MQ-9B Sea Guardian drones, which bolster India’s maritime deterrence.
   Implications for the Indo-Pacific Strategy:
10. Countering China’s Expansion: Enhanced UDA capabilities help India and its allies monitor and deter Chinese naval activities in the IOR.
11. Quad Cooperation: India’s collaboration with the U.S., Japan, and Australia improves interoperability through joint maritime patrols and disaster response mechanisms.
12. Boost to Atmanirbhar Bharat: Co-production of UDA technologies in India promotes self-reliance in defense manufacturing.
    Conclusion:
    India-U.S. cooperation in UDA strengthens maritime surveillance, regional security, and Indo-Pacific partnerships. This collaboration enhances India’s strategic autonomy while reinforcing the Quad’s role in maintaining a free and open Indo-Pacific.
    Topic: ICMR’s Initiative for a New Typhoid Vaccine and India’s Existing Typhoid Vaccines
    Relevance: GS Paper 3 Science and Technology
    Source: The Hindu
    Context:

Typhoid fever remains a major public health challenge in India, with an estimated 4.5 million cases annually and an incidence rate of 360 cases per 100,000 people. The disease is caused by the bacterium Salmonella typhi, while a related pathogen, Salmonella paratyphi, leads to paratyphoid fever. The infection spreads through contaminated food and water, making it particularly prevalent in regions with poor sanitation.
Recognizing the need for enhanced prevention strategies, the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has initiated a joint development and commercial production of a new typhoid and paratyphoid vaccine. This vaccine, developed by the ICMR-National Institute for Research in Bacterial Infections (NIRBI) in Kolkata, utilizes outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) from two different strains of typhoidal Salmonella species. It aims to provide broad-spectrum protection against both typhoid and paratyphoid fevers.
The ICMR has invited expressions of interest from vaccine manufacturers for technical validation, regulatory compliance, and commercial production. The first phase involves granting rights to manufacturers for technical validation under a non-disclosure agreement. The ICMR-NIRBI will provide expert guidance on product development, safety assessment, and data analysis to accelerate commercialization.
Existing Typhoid Vaccines in India
Currently, India has several typhoid vaccines, categorized into conjugate vaccines, live oral vaccines, and polysaccharide vaccines.

1. Typbar-TCV (Typhoid Conjugate Vaccine) – Manufactured by Bharat Biotech, this vaccine is WHO prequalified and provides long-term immunity with a single dose. It can be administered to children as young as six months and is considered highly effective.
2. Ty21a (Live Oral Typhoid Vaccine) – A live-attenuated vaccine given orally in the form of capsules. It requires a four-dose regimen and is suitable for individuals above six years. Immunity lasts for approximately five years, requiring booster doses.
3. Typhim Vi (Vi Capsular Polysaccharide Vaccine) – Developed by Sanofi Pasteur, this vaccine is a single-dose injection administered to children above two years and adults. However, it requires booster doses every three years.
4. Typherix (Vi Polysaccharide Vaccine) – Similar to Typhim Vi, this vaccine is used for individuals above two years of age and requires booster doses at regular intervals.
   Public Health Significance
   The availability of typhoid vaccines in India is currently limited to the private sector, making access a challenge for economically weaker sections. The development of a broad-spectrum vaccine through ICMR’s initiative could ensure widespread immunization through government vaccination programs, reducing the disease burden significantly.
   Moreover, antibiotic resistance in typhoid strains has become a growing concern, making vaccination a crucial preventive strategy. The proposed co-production of the new vaccine aligns with the “Atmanirbhar Bharat” (Self-Reliant India) initiative, reducing dependence on imports and strengthening India’s position in global vaccine production.

With rising urbanization and climate change exacerbating the spread of typhoid, a comprehensive vaccination strategy—integrating public sector involvement and improved sanitation measures—will be vital in controlling this life-threatening disease in India.
Prelims Practice Question
Q. Consider the following statements regarding the Indian Council of Medical Research’s (ICMR) initiative for a new typhoid vaccine:

1. The vaccine developed by ICMR-NIRBI uses outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) from multiple strains of Salmonella typhi and Salmonella paratyphi.
2. The ICMR is collaborating with international organizations for the development and production of this vaccine.
3. Currently, typhoid conjugate vaccines (TCVs) in India are available only in the private sector.
4. The existing Typbar-TCV vaccine is a live-attenuated vaccine given orally.
   Which of the above statements is/are correct?
   (a) 1 and 3 only
   (b) 2 and 4 only
   (c) 1, 2, and 4 only
   (d) 1, 2, 3, and 4
   Answer:
   Correct Option: (a) 1 and 3 only
   Explanation:
5. Correct – The ICMR-NIRBI’s new vaccine is based on outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) from multiple strains of Salmonella typhi and Salmonella paratyphi, aiming to provide broad-spectrum protection.
6. Incorrect – The ICMR has invited Indian vaccine manufacturers for commercial production but has not explicitly mentioned collaboration with international organizations.
7. Correct – In India, typhoid conjugate vaccines (TCVs) such as Typbar-TCV are currently available only in the private sector and are not yet included in the Universal Immunization Programme (UIP).
8. Incorrect – Typbar-TCV is not a live-attenuated vaccine but a conjugate vaccine that is administered via injection, not orally. The Ty21a vaccine is the live-attenuated oral typhoid vaccine.
   Thus, the correct answer is (a) 1 and 3 only.
   Mains Model Question
   Q. Discuss the significance of ICMR’s initiative to develop a broad-spectrum typhoid and paratyphoid vaccine in India. How can this initiative help in addressing the challenges of typhoid control in the country? (Answer in 300 words)
   Typhoid fever is a major public health concern in India, with an estimated 4.5 million cases annually. The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has initiated the development of a broad-spectrum vaccine against both typhoid and paratyphoid fevers to address this challenge. This vaccine, developed by the ICMR-National Institute for Research in Bacterial Infections (NIRBI), Kolkata, is based on outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) from different Salmonella strains, offering broad and long-lasting immunity.

Significance of the Initiative

1. Comprehensive Protection – Unlike existing vaccines that primarily target Salmonella typhi, this new vaccine aims to cover Salmonella paratyphi as well, which is emerging as a public health threat.
2. Addressing Antibiotic Resistance – Increasing antibiotic-resistant typhoid strains make vaccination crucial for disease prevention.
3. Atmanirbhar Bharat (Self-Reliance) – Developing and commercializing this vaccine in India will reduce dependency on imported vaccines and strengthen domestic vaccine production.
4. Cost-Effective Solution – Government-supported production can lower costs and improve accessibility, especially for economically weaker sections.
   Challenges in Typhoid Control and How the Vaccine Helps
   • Limited Public Vaccine Availability – Currently, typhoid conjugate vaccines (TCVs) are available only in the private sector. A government-led initiative can integrate the new vaccine into the Universal Immunization Programme (UIP).
   • Poor Sanitation and Water Quality – While sanitation improvements are crucial, vaccination offers an immediate preventive measure to reduce the disease burden.
   • Urban Outbreaks and Seasonal Surges – A broad-spectrum vaccine will help curb outbreaks in high-risk areas.
   In conclusion, ICMR’s initiative is a crucial step in strengthening India’s fight against typhoid by ensuring wider coverage, affordability, and self-reliant production, ultimately improving public health outcomes.
   Topic: Goods and Services Tax (GST) in Agriculture: Impact and Challenges
   Relevance: GS Paper 3 Economy
   Source: Indian Express
   Context:

The Goods and Services Tax (GST) is a comprehensive indirect tax system introduced in India on July 1, 2017, replacing multiple central and state taxes. While GST aims to streamline taxation and promote economic growth, its impact on the agriculture sector—which contributes nearly 17-18% to India’s GDP and employs over 50% of the workforce—has been a subject of debate.
GST on Agricultural Products and Equipment

1. Exemptions and Zero-Rated Products
   Several agricultural products are exempted from GST to support farmers and prevent inflation in food prices. Key exempted items include:
   • Fresh vegetables, fruits, and cereals (unprocessed)
   • Unprocessed milk, meat, and eggs
   • Organic manure
   • Agricultural implements used manually or animal-driven
2. GST Rates on Agricultural Inputs
   While raw agricultural products are tax-free, processed and value-added products attract GST at different rates:
   • 5% GST: Agricultural machinery, fertilizers, and raw cotton
   • 12% GST: Processed agricultural products (packaged wheat, rice, milk products, etc.)
   • 18% GST: Tractors, pump sets, irrigation equipment, and other farm machinery

Impact of GST on the Agriculture Sector

1. Agricultural Machinery and Equipment
   • The 18% GST on pump sets, tractors, and irrigation equipment has made essential machinery expensive for farmers.
   • The high tax burden has led to an increase in the sale of unbranded “kit pumps” (assembled pumps without branding), which do not pay taxes, affecting organized manufacturers.
2. Fertilizers and Pesticides
   • The 5% GST on fertilizers has reduced costs compared to previous tax regimes, where VAT and excise duties led to higher effective taxation.
   • Pesticides attract 18% GST, making them costlier for farmers. This can impact productivity as farmers may reduce pesticide usage.
3. Cold Storage and Supply Chain
   • Cold storage for agricultural products is exempted from GST, encouraging better post-harvest management.
   • However, processed food storage attracts 18% GST, increasing costs for value-added agriculture.
4. Impact on Farmers and Rural Economy
   • Increased input costs: Higher GST on farm equipment and inputs has increased the cost of production for farmers.

• Unorganized sector dominance: The high tax on branded agricultural machinery has pushed farmers towards tax-evading, unbranded products, affecting quality and efficiency.
• Market competitiveness: Small farmers and rural traders struggle with GST compliance due to limited digital access and accounting knowledge.
Prelims Practice Question
Q. Consider the following statements regarding the impact of GST on agriculture in India:

1. Fresh fruits, vegetables, and unprocessed cereals are exempt from GST.
2. Agricultural pump sets attract a GST rate of 12%.
3. Fertilizers are taxed at a 5% GST rate, whereas pesticides attract 18% GST.
4. Cold storage facilities for agricultural produce are exempt from GST.
   Which of the above statements is/are correct?
   (a) 1 and 3 only
   (b) 1, 3, and 4 only
   (c) 2 and 4 only
   (d) 1, 2, 3, and 4
   Answer:
   Correct Option: (b) 1, 3, and 4 only
   Explanation:
5. Correct – Fresh fruits, vegetables, and unprocessed cereals are exempt from GST to keep food prices stable and support farmers.
6. Incorrect – Agricultural pump sets attract an 18% GST, not 12%, leading to higher costs for farmers and increasing demand for unbranded pumps.
7. Correct – Fertilizers are taxed at 5% GST, while pesticides attract 18% GST, making pesticide costs higher for farmers.
8. Correct – Cold storage for agricultural produce is GST-exempt, encouraging better post-harvest storage and reducing food wastage.
   Thus, the correct answer is (b) 1, 3, and 4 only.
   Mains Model Question
   Q. Analyze the impact of GST on the agricultural sector in India. Discuss the challenges faced by farmers and agricultural equipment manufacturers due to the current GST structure. Suggest measures to make GST more farmer-friendly. (Answer in 300 words)
   The introduction of Goods and Services Tax (GST) in 2017 aimed to simplify taxation; however, its impact on agriculture has been mixed. While raw agricultural produce such as fresh fruits, vegetables, and cereals is exempt from GST, essential farm inputs and equipment are taxed at varying rates.
   Impact of GST on Agriculture
9. Positive Aspects:

o Zero tax on raw produce prevents inflation in food prices.
o 5% GST on fertilizers has reduced costs compared to the previous tax regime.
o GST exemption on cold storage promotes better post-harvest management.

2. Challenges Faced by Farmers and Equipment Manufacturers:
   o High GST on farm machinery: Agricultural pump sets, tractors, and irrigation equipment attract 18% GST, making them costlier.
   o Rise of the unorganized sector: Farmers prefer unbranded “kit pumps” (which evade tax), affecting the organized pump manufacturing industry.
   o 18% GST on pesticides increases input costs, impacting productivity.
   o Compliance difficulties: Small farmers face challenges in understanding and complying with GST rules, affecting market participation.
   Suggestions for a Farmer-Friendly GST
3. Reduce GST on farm machinery and irrigation equipment from 18% to 12% to make them affordable.
4. Encourage formalization of the pump industry by offering incentives to tax-compliant manufacturers.
5. Lower GST on pesticides to reduce input costs for farmers.
6. Simplify GST compliance for rural traders and farmers by introducing easier filing systems and tax rebates.
   Conclusion
   A rationalized GST structure with lower rates on essential agricultural inputs and equipment can boost farmer productivity, support domestic manufacturing, and ensure fair market competition.
   Topic: Air Pollution in Delhi-NCR and the Role of Stubble Burning
   Relevance: GS Paper 3 Environmental Science
   Source: The Hindu
   Context:

Air pollution in Delhi-NCR has been a long-standing environmental and public health concern, particularly during the winter months. While stubble burning in Punjab and Haryana has often been cited as a major cause, recent scientific studies indicate that it contributes only about 14% of PM2.5 pollution. Other factors such as vehicular emissions, industrial activities, construction dust, biomass burning, and unfavorable meteorological conditions play a significant role in worsening air quality.
Major Sources of Air Pollution in Delhi-NCR

1. Vehicular Emissions (30%)
   o The largest contributor to PM2.5 pollution.
   o Diesel vehicles, especially old and poorly maintained ones, contribute significantly.
   o Increased traffic congestion worsens emissions.
2. Local Biomass Burning (23%)
   o Use of wood, coal, and cow dung cakes for cooking and heating contributes to indoor and outdoor pollution.
   o Small-scale burning of municipal waste also adds to pollution levels.
3. Construction and Road Dust (10%)
   o Large-scale construction activities generate dust, increasing PM2.5 levels.
   o Unpaved roads and dry conditions contribute to dust pollution.
4. Industrial Pollution (5-7%)
   o Emissions from factories, thermal power plants, and brick kilns contribute to poor air quality.
   o Many industrial units still rely on fossil fuels like coal, generating high levels of pollutants.
5. Weather and Meteorological Factors
   o Low wind speeds and temperature inversions trap pollutants near the surface, worsening air quality.
   o Western disturbances help clear the air by increasing wind speed and rainfall, but they are infrequent.
   Government Initiatives to Combat Air Pollution
   Recognizing the severe impact of air pollution, both central and state governments have implemented several measures:
6. Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)
   • A seasonal action plan designed to control air pollution based on severity levels.
   • Includes bans on construction activities, restrictions on vehicle movement, and limits on industrial emissions during peak pollution periods.
   • Studies show a significant drop in PM2.5 levels when strict GRAP measures are enforced.
7. Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM)
   • A statutory body responsible for implementing pollution control measures across Delhi-NCR.
   • Focuses on scientific monitoring, industrial regulations, and alternative solutions for stubble burning.
8. Promotion of Cleaner Fuels and Electric Vehicles (EVs)
   • The Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME) scheme promotes EV adoption.
   • Delhi government’s Electric Vehicle Policy aims to increase the share of EVs and reduce vehicular emissions.
   • BS-VI emission norms have been implemented to reduce emissions from petrol and diesel vehicles.
9. Ban on Stubble Burning and Alternative Solutions
   • Farmers are being encouraged to adopt Happy Seeder machines and Pusa bio-decomposer to manage crop residue instead of burning.
   • Subsidies and incentives have been provided to promote in-situ management of stubble.
10. Industrial Pollution Control
    • Shifting industries to cleaner fuels such as PNG (piped natural gas).
    • Crackdown on illegal industrial units violating pollution norms.
11. Controlling Dust and Construction Pollution
    • Imposing fines on construction sites that violate dust control norms.
    • Use of anti-smog guns and water sprinklers in high-dust areas.
12. Expansion of Public Transport
    • Expansion of Delhi Metro and bus networks to reduce dependency on private vehicles.
    • Increased focus on non-motorized transport (cycling, walking-friendly infrastructure).
    Long-term Urban Planning: Implementing sustainable urban mobility, expanding green cover, and reducing congestion can help control pollution.
    • Strengthening Enforcement: Strict penalties for violators, better monitoring through satellite tracking and sensor-based pollution control are needed.
    • Public Awareness and Participation: Encouraging citizens to adopt eco-friendly practices, such as carpooling, using public transport, and avoiding waste burning, is crucial.
    Air pollution in Delhi-NCR is a complex issue with multiple contributing factors beyond stubble burning. While stubble burning must be addressed through sustainable alternatives and incentives for farmers, the larger sources of pollution such as transport, industries, and construction need stronger regulatory actions. Continued scientific studies, technological interventions, and policy enforcement will be key to achieving long-term improvements in air quality.
    Prelims Practice Question
    Q. Consider the following statements regarding air pollution in Delhi-NCR:
13. Stubble burning in Punjab and Haryana is the primary contributor to PM2.5 pollution in Delhi-NCR.
14. The Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) is implemented in Delhi-NCR to tackle air pollution based on severity levels.
15. Vehicular emissions contribute more to air pollution in Delhi-NCR than industrial pollution.
16. The Pusa bio-decomposer is a government initiative aimed at reducing stubble burning.
    Which of the statements given above are correct?
    (A) 1 and 2 only
    (B) 2, 3, and 4 only
    (C) 1, 3, and 4 only
    (D) 1, 2, 3, and 4
    Answer:
    Correct Option: (B) 2, 3, and 4 only
    Explanation:
    • Statement 1 is incorrect: Recent studies show that stubble burning contributes only about 14% to PM2.5 pollution, whereas other sources like vehicular emissions, construction dust, and biomass burning contribute more.
    • Statement 2 is correct: The Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) is a government initiative that imposes stage-wise restrictions (such as bans on construction, vehicle limits, etc.) when pollution levels worsen.
    • Statement 3 is correct: Vehicular emissions contribute around 30% to Delhi-NCR’s pollution, which is higher than industrial pollution (5-7%).
    • Statement 4 is correct: The Pusa bio-decomposer, developed by the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), helps decompose stubble without burning, reducing air pollution.
    Thus, the correct answer is (B) 2, 3, and 4 only.
    Mains Model Question
    Q. Air pollution in Delhi-NCR is a complex problem influenced by multiple sources beyond stubble burning. Analyze the major causes of air pollution in the region and evaluate the policy measures taken by the government to address the issue.
    Air pollution in Delhi-NCR is a result of multiple factors, both local and external. While stubble burning in Punjab and Haryana contributes to seasonal spikes in pollution levels, it is not the sole or primary cause. The problem is exacerbated by a combination of anthropogenic activities and meteorological conditions.

Major Causes of Air Pollution in Delhi-NCR:

1. Vehicular Emissions – A major contributor, vehicles release nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), especially from diesel-powered vehicles.
2. Industrial and Thermal Power Plant Emissions – Industrial units and coal-based thermal power plants release sulfur dioxide (SO2), NOx, and heavy metals, adding to pollution levels.
3. Construction and Road Dust – Unregulated construction activities and uncovered roads contribute significantly to suspended particulate matter.
4. Biomass and Waste Burning – Open burning of waste and biomass for heating and cooking releases harmful pollutants, particularly in winter.
5. Meteorological Factors – Temperature inversion, low wind speeds, and high humidity during winter trap pollutants, worsening air quality.
   Government Measures to Control Air Pollution:
6. Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) – A dynamic policy that imposes restrictions based on air quality levels, including bans on construction, traffic control, and industrial shutdowns.
7. National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) – Aims to reduce air pollution by 20-30% by 2024 through targeted interventions in cities.
8. Odd-Even Scheme – A road rationing measure to reduce vehicular emissions during peak pollution periods.
9. Electric Mobility Initiatives – The FAME-II scheme promotes electric vehicles (EVs) to reduce dependency on fossil fuels.
10. Pusa Bio-Decomposer – A microbial solution introduced to manage stubble without burning.
11. Banning of Firecrackers – Restrictions on firecracker use during winter to reduce short-term pollution spikes.
    Conclusion:
    While government interventions have led to some improvements, long-term air quality management requires a multi-sectoral approach, including stricter enforcement, green energy adoption, and public awareness. Addressing industrial emissions, vehicular pollution, and construction dust through sustainable urban planning and alternative energy solutions is crucial to achieving lasting improvements in Delhi-NCR’s air quality.

Topic: India-Afghanistan Trade Relations: A Historical and Contemporary Analysis
Relevance: GS Paper 2 International Relations
Source: The Hindu
Context:
India and Afghanistan share a long history of trade and cultural exchange, rooted in centuries-old links through the Silk Road. In the modern era, economic cooperation has been an essential component of their bilateral relationship, shaping strategic engagements, regional connectivity, and economic development. However, the return of the Taliban to power in August 2021 has significantly altered trade dynamics, leading to a notable trade deficit for India—a shift from the traditional surplus it enjoyed.
Historical Overview of India-Afghanistan Trade Relations

Before the 21st century, India-Afghanistan trade was largely informal, facilitated by historical trade routes that connected the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia. The 20th century saw Afghanistan relying on India for essential goods such as textiles, pharmaceuticals, and food items, while India imported dry fruits, fresh fruits, and precious stones from Afghanistan.
Pre-Taliban (2001-2021) Trade Relations:
• In 2001, after the fall of the first Taliban regime, bilateral trade saw a major boost.
• The Afghanistan-India Air Freight Corridor, launched in 2017, played a crucial role in bypassing trade restrictions imposed by Pakistan and facilitating direct cargo movement.
• India heavily invested in Afghanistan’s infrastructure projects, including the Salma Dam (Afghan-India Friendship Dam) and the Afghan Parliament, further strengthening economic ties.
• The Chabahar Port project in Iran, developed by India, was envisioned as a gateway for Afghanistan’s trade to the Indian Ocean, reducing dependency on Pakistan’s Karachi and Gwadar ports.
• Bilateral trade peaked at $1.5 billion in 2019-20, just before the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted global supply chains.
Post-Taliban Takeover (2021-Present) Trade Dynamics
With the Taliban’s return in August 2021, India-Afghanistan trade saw a fundamental shift:

1. Decline in India’s Exports:
   o Exports to Afghanistan plummeted from $825.78 million in 2020-21 to $355.45 million in 2023-24—a 16-year low.
   o Key Indian exports include medicines, vaccines, soybean meal, and garments.
   o The political uncertainty, security concerns, and logistical challenges have impacted Indian exports.
2. Rise in India’s Imports:
   o Imports from Afghanistan, on the other hand, reached an all-time high of $642.29 million in 2023-24.
   o This has led to an unusual trade deficit, a reversal from India’s traditional trade surplus.

o Major imports include figs, asafoetida, raisins, apples, garlic, saffron, fennel seeds, almonds, apricots, onions, pomegranates, and walnuts.
o Afghanistan has become a significant supplier of apples to India, surpassing traditional suppliers like the US and Italy.
Key Factors Influencing the Shift in Trade Equation
• Taliban’s Trade Policies: Unlike during their first regime, the Taliban has actively promoted trade with India, allowing agricultural exports to flourish.
• Ease of Trade via Pakistan: Pakistani authorities have facilitated smoother movement of Afghan goods through the Wagah border, benefiting India.
• Duty-Free Afghan Dry Fruits: India imposes no import duty on Afghan dry fruits, making them highly competitive in the Indian market.
• India’s Humanitarian Assistance: Indian export figures do not fully account for the humanitarian aid provided to Afghanistan.
India’s Strategic Approach Toward Afghanistan’s Trade and Economic Development
India is cautiously engaging with the Taliban while ensuring that trade and strategic interests are protected. Some key steps include:

1. Expanding Chabahar Port’s Role: India seeks to utilize Chabahar more actively to bypass Pakistan and ensure smoother trade routes.
2. Incremental Trade Growth: With India recently unfreezing visas for Afghan businessmen, trade is expected to increase steadily.
3. Encouraging Legal Exports: India has supported Afghanistan’s saffron cultivation as an alternative to poppy production, aligning with international anti-narcotics efforts.
4. Regional Connectivity Initiatives: India aims to counter China’s growing influence in Central Asia by fostering economic stability in Afghanistan.

Despite political uncertainties, India-Afghanistan trade continues to thrive, with imports reaching record levels. While Indian exports have declined, ongoing diplomatic engagements, infrastructure investments, and strategic trade facilitation efforts suggest a gradual revival. India’s approach reflects a balance of economic cooperation, strategic interests, and humanitarian commitments, reinforcing its position as a key regional stakeholder in Afghanistan’s economic stability.
Prelims Practice Question
With reference to India-Afghanistan trade relations, consider the following statements:

1. India has traditionally maintained a trade surplus with Afghanistan, but this trend reversed post-2021.
2. The Chabahar Port in Iran is being developed by India to facilitate trade with Afghanistan while bypassing Pakistan.
3. India imposes high import duties on dry fruits from Afghanistan to protect domestic producers.
   Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
   (a) 1 and 2 only
   (b) 2 and 3 only
   (c) 1 and 3 only
   (d) 1, 2, and 3
   Answer:
   Correct Option: (a) 1 and 2 only
   Statement 1 is correct – India traditionally had a trade surplus with Afghanistan, but after the Taliban’s return in 2021, Indian exports declined while imports surged, leading to a trade deficit.
   Statement 2 is correct – India is developing Chabahar Port in Iran as an alternative route for trade with Afghanistan, avoiding reliance on Pakistan’s Karachi and Gwadar ports.
   Statement 3 is incorrect – India does not impose high import duties on Afghan dry fruits; in fact, imports from Afghanistan enjoy duty-free access, making them competitive in the Indian market.
   Mains Model Question:
   Q. Discuss the evolving trade relations between India and Afghanistan in the context of recent geopolitical changes. How has India adapted its trade strategy, and what are the key challenges and opportunities in this bilateral economic engagement? (Answer in 300 words)
   India and Afghanistan share a historically significant trade relationship, deeply rooted in cultural and economic ties. However, the geopolitical landscape changed drastically after the Taliban regained power in August 2021, leading to a shift in trade dynamics.
   Evolving Trade Relations:
   Before 2021, India had a trade surplus with Afghanistan, exporting pharmaceuticals, textiles, and processed food, while importing dry fruits and agricultural products. However, after the Taliban’s return, India’s exports declined from $825.78 million in 2020-21 to $355.45 million in 2023-24, while imports surged to a record $642.29 million, creating an unusual trade deficit.

India’s Adaptation to the New Trade Scenario:

1. Chabahar Port Utilization: India is actively pushing for Chabahar Port in Iran to bypass Pakistan and ensure smoother trade with Afghanistan.
2. Unfreezing Business Visas: India has resumed visas for Afghan traders, aiming to revive export-driven engagement.
3. Support for Legal Crops: India encourages saffron cultivation in Afghanistan as an alternative to illegal poppy farming, supporting sustainable trade.
   Key Challenges:
   • Political Uncertainty: The Taliban’s global legitimacy remains in question, affecting long-term trade commitments.
   • Security Concerns: Logistical and security risks disrupt supply chains.
   • Limited Banking Channels: The lack of formal banking ties post-Taliban takeover hampers smooth transactions.
   Opportunities for India:
   • Strengthening regional connectivity via Chabahar and the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC).
   • Expanding humanitarian and trade assistance to increase goodwill and counter China’s influence in the region.
   Conclusion:
   Despite political instability, India continues to engage with Afghanistan through trade and humanitarian aid. Strengthening economic ties while balancing strategic interests will be crucial for regional stability and connectivity.